Research Method - philosophy of science

The Relativity of Wrong
by Isaac Asimov

Key concepts 
"All theories are proven wrong in time "

"When people thought the Earth was flat, there were wrong.  When people thought the Earth was spherical, they were wrong. But if you think that thinking the Earth was spherical is just as wrong as thinking the Earth is flat, then your view is wronger than both of them put together. "

"Right and wrong are fuzzy concepts"

"In great abstraction over which human beings debate, one should start without preconceived, unexamined notions and that he alone knew this. "

"How wrong are they?"

"it is because the geological formations of the Earth change so slowly and the living things upon it evolve so slowly that it seemed reasonable at first to suppose that there was no change and that Earth and life always existed as they do today"

Earth is not flat nor sphere, it is oblate spheroid because of rotation. The faster the rotation, the less likely to be sphere.

--> "Earth as sphere is wrong, but it is not as wrong as the notion of the Earth as flat. "

Comments
This essay is prominent in that it concretely emphasized the difference between relative and absolute wrong/right and provide clear evidence to prove the author's argument.

It is interesting that the author argued that there is no absolute wrong and believe that right and wrong and fuzzy concepts. This argument gives us the idea of importance of relativity but, to me, it overemphasized the relativity, ignoring the existence  of absolute right/wrong.
Contrary to the author's argument, it seems that relative and absolute right/wrong are both exist and highly correlated. i.e my argument there is no absolute relativity.
For example: 1+1= 3 or 9 are all absolutely wrong, based on this fact. We can further know that 3 is much closer than 9. Thus, 9 is relatively wronger than 3.  Thus, there are correlated and step by step.
I mean: step 1: it is absolute wrong. Step 2: it is relative wrong compared with what.

Additionally, if we think the right side, interestingly, it appears that there is no room for the relative right. 2+2=5 is relatively right? it is wrong absolutely.

article source
http://hermiene.net/essays-trans/relativity_of_wrong.html

Virtual Team - Virtual Team Theories and Theoretical Frameworks

Dennis, A.R., Fuller, R.M., and Valacich, J.S. 2008. Media, Tasks, and Communication Processes: A Theory of Media Synchronicity, MIS Quarterly (32:3), pp 575-600.

Comments: 

1.The results of table 2 show that the mechanical characteristics of media influence information transmission, which reflects theory of social presence and media richness theory. 

2. This table also reminds me two very essential theories used in the context of media. These two theories are " theory of social presence" and "Media richness theory". These two theories can be used as additional theories to explain and understand the proposition proposed by this research. 

DeSanctis, G. and Poole, M.S. 1994 Capturing Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory, Organization Science, 5(2) 121-147.

Research Questions:

What changes do these systems actually bring to the workplace?

What technology impacts should we anticipate and how can we interpret the changes that we observe? 

Concepts

There is a duality of structure whereby there is an interplay between the types of structures that are inherent to advanced technologies and the structures that emerge in human action as people interact with these technologies

Theoretical Roots of AST

1. the decision-making school

2. Social Technology school

3. Institutional School 

AST provides a detailed account of both the structure of advanced technologies as well as the unfolding of social interaction as these technologies are used.

Propositions of Adaptive Structuration Theory (AIT: action, institution and technology)

• Technologies
• Institution
• human activity 

AIT influence social structures in two ways: (technology <-->institution)

• features (rule and resources)
• spirit ( value and goal underlying a given set of structural features)

Propositions: 

PI. AITs provide social structures that can be described in terms of their features and spirit. To the extent that AITs vary in their spirit and structural features sets, different forms of social interaction are encouraged by the technology.

P2. Use of AIT structures may vary depending on the 

task, the environment, and other contingencies that offer 

alternative sources of social structures.

P3. New sources of structure emerge as the technology, task, and environmental structures are applied during the course of social interaction.

P4. New social structures emerge in group interac

tion as the rules and resources of an AIT are appropri

ated in a given context and then reproduced in group 

interaction over time.

P5. Group decision processes will vary depending on 

the nature of AIT appropriations.

P6. The nature of ALT appropriations will vary de

pending on the group's internal system.

P7. Given AIT and other sources of social structure 

n, • • • ni., and ideal appropriation processes, and deci

sion processes that fit the task at hand, then desired 

outcomes of AIT use will result.

Value 

"A major strength of AST is that it expounds the nature of social structures within advanced information technologies and the key interaction processes that figure in their use."

"AST can also enhanee our understanding of groups in general, not just those using technology."

"One strength of AST and the method outlined here is that they facilitate analysis of between-group differences. "

"A second strength of AST is that it accounts for the structural potential of technology and at the same time focuses squarely on technology use as a key determinant of technology impacts.  "  

Questions : 

the authors emphasize on AIT, such as GDSS. However, is it really necessary to separate IT into AIT and IT? Also, what are other examples of AIT? Twitter, Facebook or app Store are AIT? no clear at all. Finally, GDSS may become not AIT  one day because the pace of IT development changes dramatically. In other words, GDSS may not be the case of AIT in the near future.  

McGrath, J. E. 1991. Time, Interaction and Performance, Small Group Research, 22(2), 147-174.

Special emphasis to temporal processes in group interaction and task performance

Virtual Team - Introduction（new)

What factors cause a team toward a virtual structure? Globalization and Information Technology (1), (2), (3)

Why do we need the virtual team? to maximize long term performance(2) and to encourage the sharing of best practices across operating companies. (2)

(1)

The Spatial, Temporal, and Configurational Characteristics of Geographic Dispersion in Teams

By Michael Boyer O’Leary and  Jonathon N. Cummings (2007)

Paper type

This paper attempts to fill gaps left by previous research and, then, provides the standard measurement of virtual teams.

Concept

The authors point out three Dimension of Dispersion which can illustrate the geographically dispersed teams. There are Spital Dimension, Temporal Dimension and Configurational Dimension. 

• Spital dispersion: distance measured in feet or miles. 
• Temporal dispersion: time. work in different time zone ( team members' normal work hours overlap.)
• Configurational dispersion: Team Member. arrangement of members across sites
• Isolation: decrease awareness
• Sites: increase complexity
• Imbalance: increase conflict

The relationship between Spatial and temporal dispersion

Problem 

1. Prior studies method or implied multiple dimensions or varying degres of dispersion, but did not characterize those dimensions explicitly or measure variations in them. 
2. the majority of empirical research on geographically dispersed teams has defined dispersion loosely and usually in spatial terms. 

Value 

Develop a measurement which is theoretically grounded to examine VT.

Method

Applying the developed measurement to examine five real teams by five index. 

• Spatial Distance Index (SDI): the higher the SDI, the more spatially dispersed the team. 
• Time Zone Index (TZI)
• Site Index (SI): the more sites at which team members work, the more dispersed a team. 
• Isolation Index : The more remote a member is , the less aware other members will be of his or her activities. 
• Imbalance Index: 

others

problem of self-report(p440)

common-method/common source problem(1):p440) (3):p294

index's external validity (split the sample into halves) (3):p294

Comments 

The core value of this research is to develop a clear measurement of geographical dispersion in Teams.

I agree with the authors statement in that the value of this research can help (1) it provides scholars with a robust, theo- retically grounded, multidimensional model of geographic dispersion, which effectively captures the critical ways in which teams’ dispersion varies; and (2) it provides measures for each of those dimensions. 

My concern, however, for this research is the assumption that geographical dispersion in teams represents VT. Yet, the question is does geographical dispersion in teams means virtual team? I don't think so.  Can we say the greater the spatial index, the higher possibility the team is virtual? of course not. 

For me, there are three types of teams in the world - traditional team, virtual team and mixed.Due to technology, virtual teams and mixed teams are everywhere and traditional teams become less and less.  Think about this scenario. Suppose A and I are working on the same project. We might discuss the topic face-to-face, then search for literature, share what we found via internet or pose them to the cloud  and then discuss online. 

(2) 

Managing the life cycle of virtual teams

By Furst, S.A., Reeves, M., Rosen, B., and Blackburn, R. S. (2004)

Paper Types

find out why virtual teams are often less effective than face to face temas on many outcome measures.

What challenges exist in each stage of forming a VT? 

Research problem:

there is growing evidence that virtual teams fail more often than they succeed 

Based on single observations or laboratory studies with student virtual teams.

Structure

Virtual Team life cycle (forming, stroming, norming and performing / phase I and II)--> performance

Concept

Advantages of VT 

1. increased knowledge sharing and employee job satisfaction and commitment

2. improve organizational performance. 

Challenges of VT 

1. logistical problems ( communicating and coordinating work across time and space)

2. interpersonal concerns ( interact with others in the absence of frequent face-to-face communication) 

3. technology issues 

Structure & Challenges: 

• Forming: takes longer when geographically dispersed/ first impression and stereotypes / trust is based on information sharing, appropriate responses 
• Storming: no social cues/ take longer to reach consensus/ different expectation
• Norming: creating new habits / agreements on timetables
• Performing:maintaining team performance / synergy 

Case Study - six VTs in FOODCO

Conclusions

• Why success? 
• proactive, focused, resourceful, and unafraid to seek support and audience as needed. 
• strong consensus in stage 2. 
• frequent assessments of team processes
• team commitment
• more confident 
• senior sponsor involvement at the early and middle stages of VT life cycle. 

• Why failure?
• lack of communication 
• reduced mission clarity and productivity 
• the uncertainty of acquiring resources and support

Comments 

The findings of this research seem to be the same with the findings of research that fouces on traditional teams. 

(3) 

How virtual are we? Measuring virtuality and understanding its impact in a global organization

by Chudoba, K. M., Wynn, E., Lu. M and Watson-Manheim, M. B. (2005)

Research Types

Importance of the clear definition of the concept 

Value

Develop the measurement of VT 

Research Problems

 it has been problematic to define what ‘virtual’ means across multiple institutional contexts

Concept

A universal assumption of Virtual is distance

The distance per se will cause few challenges including: resolve conflicts, communicate, maintain social interaction over time, space, or organization units. 

Factors decrease cohesion when form a VT / discontinuities. 

These discontinuities include: geography, time zone, organization, national culture, work practices, and technology

Benefits of cleared definition

1. document and measure the conditions of VT

2. measure performances

3. find out the solutions 

Method 

Intel 

Web-based survey

Measurement ( after factor analysis)

Conclusions

• Six factors have been extracted into three main factors 

Team distribution: the degree to which people work on teams that have peopel distributed over different geographies and time zone. 

Workplace Mobility: the degree to which employees work in environments other than regular offices. 

Variety of Practice: the degree to which employees experience cultural and work process diversity on their teams. how much employees collaborated with people who track their work in different ways, use different ICT tools or experience process changes due to changes in team membership. 

• Other factors (control variable) impacts team performance
• Social interaction/ Knowledge networking  / Work predictability 
• Social interaction increases communication effectiveness 
• knowledge networking amplifies information productivity
• Less predictability requires more intensive and explicit communication with co-workers

Results

Others: 

contradictory finding explanation (p296)

Comments & Questions: 

1. the first measurement of culture is problematic because the same language may also have different cultural. 

2. I cannot find that the relationship between three main factors of discontinues and performance is logically associated. 

3. Face-to-face discussion but share information via e-mail and cloud technology. Can we say this is virtual team?

4. how do we determine virtual team based on the findings of this research? can we say in 7-point-scale, if workplace mobility is 5. Then is it the virtual team? I doubt that.